Key Points
-
Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation (PARylation) is a post-translational modification in which ADP-ribose units are added to Glu, Asp and Lys residues of target (or acceptor) proteins by members of the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) family. Seventeen PARP family members have been identified on the basis of homology to PARP1, which is the founding member of the PARP family.
-
PARylation is important for cellular signalling pathways, cytoplasmic and nuclear functions and the response to cellular stress.
-
A number of proteins with poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) degrading activities have been characterized, such as the endo- and exoglycohydrolase poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG). PARG promotes the rapid catabolic destruction of PAR almost immediately after synthesis, thus allowing temporal control of PAR functions.
-
Recognition of and binding to PAR occurs through four distinct protein modules: PAR-binding motifs (PBMs), PAR-binding zinc-finger (PBZ) domains, macrodomain folds and WWE domains. Some of these domains are found in PARPs themselves.
-
New evidence has shown that the activation and destruction of PAR modifications can alter protein substrate specificity, localization and stability, and these findings implicate PARPs as a promising target for therapeutic intervention in human disease.
-
The key mechanisms by which PARylation regulates many cellular responses include the inhibition of protein–protein or protein–DNA interactions, nucleation of protein localization and interaction scaffolds, as well as the regulation of other protein modifications, such as ubiquitylation.
-
The involvement of PARP proteins in DNA damage detection and repair, telomere maintenance, and stress responses and recovery gives hope for the use of PARP inhibition as a means for selective 'next generation' therapies for cancer, as well as stress-related diseases that exhibit pro-inflammatory signatures (for example, cardiovascular diseases, stroke, metabolic disorders, diabetes, and autoimmunity). As such, PARPs have recently been targeted with small molecules in clinical trials for a number of human diseases.
Abstract
Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) are enzymes that transfer ADP-ribose groups to target proteins and thereby affect various nuclear and cytoplasmic processes. The activity of PARP family members, such as PARP1 and PARP2, is tied to cellular signalling pathways, and through poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation (PARylation) they ultimately promote changes in gene expression, RNA and protein abundance, and the location and activity of proteins that mediate signalling responses. PARPs act in a complex response network that is driven by the cellular, molecular and chemical biology of poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR). This PAR-dependent response network is crucial for a broad array of physiological and pathological responses and thus is a good target for chemical therapeutics for several diseases.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 print issues and online access
$189.00 per year
only $15.75 per issue
Rent or buy this article
Prices vary by article type
from$1.95
to$39.95
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Hassa, P. O., Haenni, S. S., Elser, M. & Hottiger, M. O. Nuclear ADP-ribosylation reactions in mammalian cells: where are we today and where are we going? Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 70, 789–829 (2006).
Hassa, P. O. & Hottiger, M. O. The diverse biological roles of mammalian PARPS, a small but powerful family of poly-ADP-ribose polymerases. Front. Biosci. 13, 3046–3082 (2008).
Schreiber, V., Dantzer, F., Ame, J. C. & de Murcia, G. Poly(ADP-ribose): novel functions for an old molecule. Nature Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 7, 517–528 (2006).
Krishnakumar, R. & Kraus, W. L. The PARP side of the nucleus: molecular actions, physiological outcomes, and clinical targets. Mol. Cell 39, 8–24 (2010).
Luo, X. & Kraus, W. L. On PAR with PARP: cellular stress signaling through poly(ADP-ribose) and PARP-1. Genes Dev. 26, 417–432 (2012).
Hassa, P. O. & Hottiger, M. O. The functional role of poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase 1 as novel coactivator of NF-κB in inflammatory disorders. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 59, 1534–1553 (2002).
Kraus, W. L. Transcriptional control by PARP-1: chromatin modulation, enhancer-binding, coregulation, and insulation. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 20, 294–302 (2008).
Ji, Y. & Tulin, A. V. The roles of PARP1 in gene control and cell differentiation. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 20, 512–518 (2010).
Kim, M. Y., Zhang, T. & Kraus, W. L. Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation by PARP-1: 'PAR-laying' NAD+ into a nuclear signal. Genes Dev. 19, 1951–1967 (2005).
Cohen-Armon, M. PARP-1 activation in the ERK signaling pathway. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 28, 556–560 (2007).
Rouleau, M., Patel, A., Hendzel, M. J., Kaufmann, S. H. & Poirier, G. G. PARP inhibition: PARP1 and beyond. Nature Rev. Cancer 10, 293–301 (2010).
Sodhi, R. K., Singh, N. & Jaggi, A. S. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) and its therapeutic implications. Vascul. Pharmacol. 53, 77–87 (2010).
Underhill, C., Toulmonde, M. & Bonnefoi, H. A review of PARP inhibitors: from bench to bedside. Ann. Oncol. 22, 268–279 (2011).
Telli, M. L. PARP inhibitors in cancer: moving beyond BRCA. Lancet Oncol. 12, 827–828 (2011).
Hottiger, M. O., Hassa, P. O., Luscher, B., Schuler, H. & Koch-Nolte, F. Toward a unified nomenclature for mammalian ADP-ribosyltransferases. Trends Biochem. Sci. 35, 208–219 (2010).
Ame, J. C. et al. PARP-2, a novel mammalian DNA damage-dependent poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase. J. Biol. Chem. 274, 17860–17868 (1999).
Boehler, C. et al. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 3 (PARP3), a newcomer in cellular response to DNA damage and mitotic progression. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, 2783–2788 (2011).
Rulten, S. L. et al. PARP-3 and APLF function together to accelerate nonhomologous end-joining. Mol. Cell 41, 33–45 (2011).
Sbodio, J. I. & Chi, N. W. Identification of a tankyrase-binding motif shared by IRAP, TAB182, and human TRF1 but not mouse TRF1. NuMA contains this RXXPDG motif and is a novel tankyrase partner. J. Biol. Chem. 277, 31887–31892 (2002).
Loseva, O. et al. PARP-3 is a mono-ADP-ribosylase that activates PARP-1 in the absence of DNA. J. Biol. Chem. 285, 8054–8060 (2010).
Aguiar, R. C., Takeyama, K., He, C., Kreinbrink, K. & Shipp, M. A. B-aggressive lymphoma family proteins have unique domains that modulate transcription and exhibit poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase activity. J. Biol. Chem. 280, 33756–33765 (2005).
Kleine, H. et al. Substrate-assisted catalysis by PARP10 limits its activity to mono-ADP-ribosylation. Mol. Cell 32, 57–69 (2008).
Kiehlbauch, C. C., Aboul-Ela, N., Jacobson, E. L., Ringer, D. P. & Jacobson, M. K. High resolution fractionation and characterization of ADP-ribose polymers. Anal. Biochem. 208, 26–34 (1993).
Ruf, A., Rolli, V., de Murcia, G. & Schulz, G. E. The mechanism of the elongation and branching reaction of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase as derived from crystal structures and mutagenesis. J. Mol. Biol. 278, 57–65 (1998).
Ruf, A., de Murcia, G. & Schulz, G. E. Inhibitor and NAD+ binding to poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase as derived from crystal structures and homology modeling. Biochemistry 37, 3893–3900 (1998).
Otto, H. et al. In silico characterization of the family of PARP-like poly(ADP-ribosyl)transferases (pARTs). BMC Genom. 6, 139 (2005).
Bell, C. E. & Eisenberg, D. Crystal structure of diphtheria toxin bound to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. Biochemistry 35, 1137–1149 (1996).
Meyer-Ficca, M. L., Meyer, R. G., Coyle, D. L., Jacobson, E. L. & Jacobson, M. K. Human poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase is expressed in alternative splice variants yielding isoforms that localize to different cell compartments. Exp. Cell Res. 297, 521–532 (2004).
Slade, D. et al. The structure and catalytic mechanism of a poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase. Nature 477, 616–620 (2011). Describes the structure of a bacterial homologue of PARG, and the surprising finding that PARG enzymes are structurally related to macrodomains. Infers the mechanistic details of PAR degradation from this structure and mutational analyses.
Miwa, M., Tanaka, M., Matsushima, T. & Sugimura, T. Purification and properties of glycohydrolase from calf thymus splitting ribose-ribose linkages of poly(adenosine diphosphate ribose). J. Biol. Chem. 249, 3475–3482 (1974).
Oka, S., Kato, J. & Moss, J. Identification and characterization of a mammalian 39-kDa poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase. J. Biol. Chem. 281, 705–713 (2006).
Ono, T., Kasamatsu, A., Oka, S. & Moss, J. The 39-kDa poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase ARH3 hydrolyzes O-acetyl-ADP-ribose, a product of the Sir2 family of acetyl-histone deacetylases. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103, 16687–16691 (2006).
Niere, M. et al. ADP-ribosylhydrolase 3 (ARH3), not poly-ADP-ribose glycohydrolase (PARG) isoforms, are responsible for degradation of mitochondrial matrix-associated poly-ADP-ribose. J. Biol. Chem. 20 Mar 2012 (doi: 10.1074/jbc.M112.349183).
McLennan, A. G. The Nudix hydrolase superfamily. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 63, 123–143 (2006).
Langelier, M. F., Planck, J. L., Roy, S. & Pascal, J. M. Crystal structures of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) zinc fingers bound to DNA: structural and functional insights into DNA-dependent PARP-1 activity. J. Biol. Chem. 286, 10690–10701 (2011). Reports the structure of most of human PARP1 in complex with a model substrate for DNA double-strand break recognition. This work elucidates the inter-domain conformational changes that induce the activation of PARP1 catalytic activity following DNA substrate binding and provides insights into the automodification bias of PARP1.
Caldecott, K. W., Aoufouchi, S., Johnson, P. & Shall, S. XRCC1 polypeptide interacts with DNA polymerase-β and possibly poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase, and DNA ligase III is a novel molecular 'nick-sensor' in vitro. Nucleic Acids Res. 24, 4387–4394 (1996).
Langelier, M. F., Planck, J. L., Roy, S. & Pascal, J. M. Structural basis for DNA damage-dependent poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation by human PARP-1. Science 336, 728–732 (2012).
Lilyestrom, W., van der Woerd, M. J., Clark, N. & Luger, K. Structural and biophysical studies of human PARP-1 in complex with damaged DNA. J. Mol. Biol. 395, 983–994 (2010).
Eustermann, S. et al. The DNA-binding domain of human PARP-1 interacts with DNA single-strand breaks as a monomer through its second zinc finger. J. Mol. Biol. 407, 149–170 (2011).
Altmeyer, M., Messner, S., Hassa, P. O., Fey, M. & Hottiger, M. O. Molecular mechanism of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation by PARP1 and identification of lysine residues as ADP-ribose acceptor sites. Nucleic Acids Res. 37, 3723–3738 (2009).
Kim, M. Y., Mauro, S., Gevry, N., Lis, J. T. & Kraus, W. L. NAD+-dependent modulation of chromatin structure and transcription by nucleosome binding properties of PARP-1. Cell 119, 803–814 (2004).
D'Amours, D., Desnoyers, S., D'Silva, I. & Poirier, G. G. Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation reactions in the regulation of nuclear functions. Biochem. J. 342, 249–268 (1999).
Kraus, W. L. & Lis, J. T. PARP goes transcription. Cell 113, 677–683 (2003).
Pinnola, A., Naumova, N., Shah, M. & Tulin, A. V. Nucleosomal core histones mediate dynamic regulation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 protein binding to chromatin and induction of its enzymatic activity. J. Biol. Chem. 282, 32511–32519 (2007).
Kotova, E. et al. Drosophila histone H2A variant (H2Av) controls poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) activation in chromatin. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, 6205–6210 (2011).
Petesch, S. J. & Lis, J. T. Rapid, transcription-independent loss of nucleosomes over a large chromatin domain at Hsp70 loci. Cell 134, 74–84 (2008).
Petesch, S. J. & Lis, J. T. Activator-induced spread of Poly(ADP-Ribose) polymerase promotes nucleosome loss at Hsp70. Mol. Cell 45, 64–74 (2012).
Schreiber, V. et al. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-2 (PARP-2) is required for efficient base excision DNA repair in association with PARP-1 and XRCC1. J. Biol. Chem. 277, 23028–23036 (2002).
Cohen-Armon, M. et al. DNA-independent PARP-1 activation by phosphorylated ERK2 increases Elk1 activity: a link to histone acetylation. Mol. Cell 25, 297–308 (2007).
Chi, N. W. & Lodish, H. F. Tankyrase is a golgi-associated mitogen-activated protein kinase substrate that interacts with IRAP in GLUT4 vesicles. J. Biol. Chem. 275, 38437–38444 (2000).
Guettler, S. et al. Structural basis and sequence rules for substrate recognition by Tankyrase explain the basis for cherubism disease. Cell 147, 1340–1354 (2011). Provides a detailed structural and functional description of the ankyrin repeat domains of tankyrases and their recognition of the ankyrin repeat recognition sequence. Provides mechanistic insights into how loss of this recognition underlies the human disease cherubism.
Levaot, N. et al. Loss of Tankyrase-mediated destruction of 3BP2 is the underlying pathogenic mechanism of cherubism. Cell 147, 1324–1339 (2011). The authors use mouse models for cherubism, and an elegant series of molecular analyses, to show that the molecular basis for cherubism lies in the misregulation of tankyrase recognition of 3BP2 and 3BP2 PARylation. This is the first human disease to be directly linked to abrogation of PAR-directed ubiquitylation and subsequent target destruction.
Ryu, H. et al. PIASy mediates SUMO-2/3 conjugation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) on mitotic chromosomes. J. Biol. Chem. 285, 14415–14423 (2010).
Martin, N. et al. PARP-1 transcriptional activity is regulated by sumoylation upon heat shock. EMBO J. 28, 3534–3548 (2009).
Mao, Z. et al. SIRT6 promotes DNA repair under stress by activating PARP1. Science 332, 1443–1446 (2011). Describes DNA-damage-driven crosstalk between the mono(ADP-ribosyl) transferase SIRT6 and the damage response protein PARP1. Suggests that mono(ADPribosyl)ating enzymes may kick-start PARylation by PARPs by adding the first ADP-ribose unit to target proteins.
Mendoza-Alvarez, H. & Alvarez-Gonzalez, R. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase is a catalytic dimer and the automodification reaction is intermolecular. J. Biol. Chem. 268, 22575–22580 (1993).
Leung, A. K. et al. Poly(ADP-ribose) regulates stress responses and microRNA activity in the cytoplasm. Mol. Cell 42, 489–499 (2011). Provides evidence that multiple PARP family members form an integrated stress response network, and that PAR polymers are an integral component of stress granules at the nexus of PARylating enzymes and PAR-binding proteins.
Collier, R. J. Understanding the mode of action of diphtheria toxin: a perspective on progress during the 20th century. Toxicon 39, 1793–1803 (2001).
Asher, G. et al. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 participates in the phase entrainment of circadian clocks to feeding. Cell 142, 943–953 (2010). Demonstrates that PARP1 is crucial for normal circadian rhythm control by feeding cycles. Provides a clear example of how PARylation promotes the inactivation of a target protein by showing that feeding-driven PARylation of the transcription factor CLOCK inhibits its DNA binding and gene-regulating activities.
Krishnakumar, R. & Kraus, W. L. PARP-1 regulates chromatin structure and transcription through a KDM5B-dependent pathway. Mol. Cell 39, 736–749 (2010).
Abd Elmageed, Z. Y., Naura, A. S., Errami, Y. & Zerfaoui, M. The poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs): new roles in intracellular transport. Cell. Signal. 24, 1–8 (2012).
Sala, A. et al. The nucleosome-remodeling ATPase ISWI is regulated by poly-ADP-ribosylation. PLoS Biol. 6, e252 (2008).
Smith, S., Giriat, I., Schmitt, A. & de Lange, T. Tankyrase, a poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase at human telomeres. Science 282, 1484–1487 (1998).
Wacker, D. A. et al. The DNA binding and catalytic domains of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 cooperate in the regulation of chromatin structure and transcription. Mol. Cell. Biol. 27, 7475–7485 (2007).
Stilmann, M. et al. A nuclear poly(ADP-ribose)-dependent signalosome confers DNA damage-induced IκB kinase activation. Mol. Cell 36, 365–378 (2009). Describes a PAR-driven signalling mechanism in which PAR-binding is a prerequisite for protein–protein interactions in the DNA damage response.
Ahel, D. et al. Poly(ADP-ribose)-dependent regulation of DNA repair by the chromatin remodeling enzyme ALC1. Science 325, 1240–1243 (2009).
Chou, D. M. et al. A chromatin localization screen reveals poly (ADP ribose)-regulated recruitment of the repressive polycomb and NuRD complexes to sites of DNA damage. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 18475–18480 (2010). Reports the results of a high-throughput screen that identifies a host of proteins that bind to chromatin following DNA-damage induction in a PAR-directed manner. The PAR-directed recruitment of chromatin-modifying complexes, such as Polycomb and NuRD, allows transcription to be repressed in the region of DNA damage.
Li, G. Y. et al. Structure and identification of ADP-ribose recognition motifs of APLF and role in the DNA damage response. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 9129–9134 (2010).
Ahel, I. et al. Poly(ADP-ribose)-binding zinc finger motifs in DNA repair/checkpoint proteins. Nature 451, 81–85 (2008).
Masson, M. et al. XRCC1 is specifically associated with poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase and negatively regulates its activity following DNA damage. Mol. Cell. Biol. 18, 3563–3571 (1998).
Okano, S., Lan, L., Caldecott, K. W., Mori, T. & Yasui, A. Spatial and temporal cellular responses to single-strand breaks in human cells. Mol. Cell. Biol. 23, 3974–3981 (2003).
Chang, P., Coughlin, M. & Mitchison, T. J. Tankyrase-1 polymerization of poly(ADP-ribose) is required for spindle structure and function. Nature Cell Biol. 7, 1133–1139 (2005).
Chang, P., Coughlin, M. & Mitchison, T. J. Interaction between Poly(ADP-ribose) and NuMA contributes to mitotic spindle pole assembly. Mol. Biol. Cell 20, 4575–4585 (2009).
Chang, P., Jacobson, M. K. & Mitchison, T. J. Poly(ADP-ribose) is required for spindle assembly and structure. Nature 432, 645–649 (2004).
Kotova, E., Jarnik, M. & Tulin, A. V. Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 is required for protein localization to Cajal body. PLoS Genet. 5, e1000387 (2009).
Aravind, L. The WWE domain: a common interaction module in protein ubiquitination and ADP ribosylation. Trends Biochem. Sci. 26, 273–275 (2001).
Wang, T., Simbulan-Rosenthal, C. M., Smulson, M. E., Chock, P. B. & Yang, D. C. Polyubiquitylation of PARP-1 through ubiquitin K48 is modulated by activated DNA, NAD+, and dipeptides. J. Cell Biochem. 104, 318–328 (2008).
Chang, W., Dynek, J. N. & Smith, S. TRF1 is degraded by ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis after release from telomeres. Genes Dev. 17, 1328–1333 (2003).
Wang, Z. et al. Recognition of the iso-ADP-ribose moiety in poly(ADP-ribose) by WWE domains suggests a general mechanism for poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation-dependent ubiquitination. Genes Dev. 26, 235–240 (2012). Describes the discovery of a fourth PAR-binding module, termed the WWE domain.
Kang, H. C. et al. Iduna is a poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR)-dependent E3 ubiquitin ligase that regulates DNA damage. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, 14103–14108 (2011).
Zhang, Y. et al. RNF146 is a poly(ADP-ribose)-directed E3 ligase that regulates axin degradation and Wnt signalling. Nature Cell Biol. 13, 623–629 (2011). References 80 and 81 demonstrate that the PAR-binding protein RNF146 is a PAR-directed E3 ubiquitin ligase, thereby linking PARylation to PARP target protein destruction.
Andrabi, S. A. et al. Iduna protects the brain from glutamate excitotoxicity and stroke by interfering with poly(ADP-ribose) polymer-induced cell death. Nature Med. 17, 692–699 (2011).
Huang, S. M. et al. Tankyrase inhibition stabilizes axin and antagonizes Wnt signalling. Nature 461, 614–620 (2009).
Kashima, L. et al. CHFR regulates the mitotic checkpoint by targeting PARP-1 for ubiquitination and degradation. J. Biol. Chem. 287, 12975–12984 (2012).
Bacalini, M. G. et al. Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation affects stabilization of Che-1 protein in response to DNA damage. DNA Repair (Amst.) 10, 380–389 (2011).
Andrabi, S. A., Dawson, T. M. & Dawson, V. L. Mitochondrial and nuclear cross talk in cell death: parthanatos. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1147, 233–241 (2008).
Wang, X., Yang, C., Chai, J., Shi, Y. & Xue, D. Mechanisms of AIF-mediated apoptotic DNA degradation in Caenorhabditis elegans. Science 298, 1587–1592 (2002).
Yu, S. W. et al. Mediation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1-dependent cell death by apoptosis-inducing factor. Science 297, 259–263 (2002).
Smith, B. C., Hallows, W. C. & Denu, J. M. A continuous microplate assay for sirtuins and nicotinamide-producing enzymes. Anal. Biochem. 394, 101–109 (2009).
Karras, G. I. et al. The macro domain is an ADP-ribose binding module. EMBO J. 24, 1911–1920 (2005).
Kolisek, M., Beck, A., Fleig, A. & Penner, R. Cyclic ADP-ribose and hydrogen peroxide synergize with ADP-ribose in the activation of TRPM2 channels. Mol. Cell 18, 61–69 (2005).
Koh, D. W. et al. Failure to degrade poly(ADP-ribose) causes increased sensitivity to cytotoxicity and early embryonic lethality. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 17699–17704 (2004).
Mortusewicz, O., Fouquerel, E., Ame, J. C., Leonhardt, H. & Schreiber, V. PARG is recruited to DNA damage sites through poly(ADP-ribose)- and PCNA-dependent mechanisms. Nucleic Acids Res. 39, 5045–5056 (2011).
Frizzell, K. M. et al. Global analysis of transcriptional regulation by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 and poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. J. Biol. Chem. 284, 33926–33938 (2009).
Gagne, J. P. et al. Proteome-wide identification of poly(ADP-ribose) binding proteins and poly(ADP-ribose)-associated protein complexes. Nucleic Acids Res. 36, 6959–6976 (2008).
Pleschke, J. M., Kleczkowska, H. E., Strohm, M. & Althaus, F. R. Poly(ADP-ribose) binds to specific domains in DNA damage checkpoint proteins. J. Biol. Chem. 275, 40974–40980 (2000).
Huambachano, O., Herrera, F., Rancourt, A. & Satoh, M. S. Double-stranded DNA binding domain of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 and molecular insight into the regulation of its activity. J. Biol. Chem. 286, 7149–7160 (2011).
Murawska, M., Hassler, M., Renkawitz-Pohl, R., Ladurner, A. & Brehm, A. Stress-induced PARP activation mediates recruitment of Drosophila Mi-2 to promote heat shock gene expression. PLoS Genet. 7, e1002206 (2011).
Eustermann, S. et al. Solution structures of the two PBZ domains from human APLF and their interaction with poly(ADP-ribose). Nature Struct. Mol. Biol. 17, 241–243 (2010).
Oberoi, J. et al. Structural basis of poly(ADP-ribose) recognition by the multizinc binding domain of checkpoint with forkhead-associated and RING domains (CHFR). J. Biol. Chem. 285, 39348–39358 (2010).
Han, W., Li, X. & Fu, X. The macro domain protein family: structure, functions, and their potential therapeutic implications. Mutat. Res. 727, 86–103 (2011).
Kustatscher, G., Hothorn, M., Pugieux, C., Scheffzek, K. & Ladurner, A. G. Splicing regulates NAD metabolite binding to histone macroH2A. Nature Struct. Mol. Biol. 12, 624–625 (2005).
Peterson, F. C. et al. Orphan macrodomain protein (human C6orf130) is an O-acyl-ADP-ribose deacylase: solution structure and catalytic properties. J. Biol. Chem. 286, 35955–35965 (2011).
Chen, D. et al. Identification of macrodomain proteins as novel O-acetyl-ADP-ribose deacetylases. J. Biol. Chem. 286, 13261–13271 (2011).
Mehrotra, P. V. et al. DNA repair factor APLF is a histone chaperone. Mol. Cell 41, 46–55 (2011).
Gottschalk, A. J. et al. Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation directs recruitment and activation of an ATP-dependent chromatin remodeler. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106, 13770–13774 (2009).
Specht, K. M. & Shokat, K. M. The emerging power of chemical genetics. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 14, 155–159 (2002).
Anders, C. K. et al. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibition: “targeted” therapy for triple-negative breast cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 16, 4702–4710 (2010).
Papeo, G. et al. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibition in cancer therapy: are we close to maturity? Expert Opin. Ther. Pat. 19, 1377–1400 (2009).
Pacher, P. & Szabo, C. Role of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1) in cardiovascular diseases: the therapeutic potential of PARP inhibitors. Cardiovasc. Drug Rev. 25, 235–260 (2007).
Shevalye, H. et al. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibition counteracts multiple manifestations of kidney disease in long-term streptozotocin-diabetic rat model. Biochem. Pharmacol. 79, 1007–1014 (2010).
Masutani, M., Nakagama, H. & Sugimura, T. Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation in relation to cancer and autoimmune disease. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 62, 769–783 (2005).
Mota, R. A. et al. Inhibition of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase attenuates the severity of acute pancreatitis and associated lung injury. Lab. Invest. 85, 1250–1262 (2005).
Bryant, H. E. et al. Specific killing of BRCA2-deficient tumours with inhibitors of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase. Nature 434, 913–917 (2005).
Farmer, H. et al. Targeting the DNA repair defect in BRCA mutant cells as a therapeutic strategy. Nature 434, 917–921 (2005).
Fong, P. C. et al. Inhibition of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase in tumors from BRCA mutation carriers. N. Engl. J. Med. 361, 123–134 (2009).
Gelmon, K. A. et al. Olaparib in patients with recurrent high-grade serous or poorly differentiated ovarian carcinoma or triple-negative breast cancer: a phase 2, multicentre, open-label, non-randomised study. Lancet Oncol. 12, 852–861 (2011).
O'Shaughnessy, J. et al. Iniparib plus chemotherapy i n metastatic triple-negative breast cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 364, 205–214 (2011).
Guha, M. PARP inhibitors stumble in breast cancer. Nature Biotech. 29, 373–374 (2011).
Patel, A. G., De Lorenzo, S. B., Flatten, K. S., Poirier, G. G. & Kaufmann, S. H. Failure of iniparib to inhibit poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase in vitro. Clin. Cancer Res. 18, 1655–1662 (2012).
Liu, X. et al. Iniparib nonselectively modifies cysteine-containing proteins in tumor cells and is not a bona fide PARP inhibitor. Clin. Cancer Res. 18, 510–523 (2012).
Wahlberg, E. et al. Family-wide chemical profiling and structural analysis of PARP and tankyrase inhibitors. Nature Biotech. 30, 283–288 (2012).
Narwal, M., Venkannagari, H. & Lehtio, L. Structural basis of selective inhibition of human tankyrases. J. Med. Chem. 55, 1360–1367 (2012).
Southan, G. J. & Szabo, C. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors. Curr. Med. Chem. 10, 321–340 (2003).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing financial interests.
Related links
Glossary
- SUMOylation
-
The process of covalently attaching the small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO), which is a small protein, to specific Lys residues on target proteins through an isopeptide bond.
- Non-homologous end-joining
-
(NHEJ). A DNA repair pathway that repairs double-strand breaks in DNA. In this pathway the break ends are directly ligated without the need for a homologous template.
- Homologous recombination
-
A type of genetic recombination in which nucleotide sequences are exchanged between two homologous DNA molecules. It is used by cells during S phase of the cell cycle to eliminate deleterious lesions, such as double-strand breaks, from chromosomes.
- Cajal bodies
-
Spherical suborganellar structures that are located in the nuclei of proliferative cells. They are thought to mediate RNA-related metabolic processes, including small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particle (snRNP) biogenesis, maturation and recycling, as well as histone mRNA processing and telomere maintenance.
- Mitotic catastrophe
-
Cell death that is linked to delayed mitosis and that occurs as a result of aberrant chromosome segregation, chromosome fusions or other types of DNA damage.
- Base excision repair
-
A DNA repair mechanism that primarily removes small, nonhelix-distorting base lesions from the genome, which might otherwise cause mutations during DNA replication.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gibson, B., Kraus, W. New insights into the molecular and cellular functions of poly(ADP-ribose) and PARPs. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 13, 411–424 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrm3376
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrm3376
This article is cited by
-
Crosstalk between protein post-translational modifications and phase separation
Cell Communication and Signaling (2024)
-
TKT-PARP1 axis induces radioresistance by promoting DNA double-strand break repair in hepatocellular carcinoma
Oncogene (2024)
-
High-throughput screening assay for PARP-HPF1 interaction inhibitors to affect DNA damage repair
Scientific Reports (2024)
-
Discovery of novel 2,3,4,5-tetrahydrospiro[benzo[c]azepine-1,1’-cyclohexan]-5-ol derivatives as PARP-1 inhibitors
BMC Chemistry (2023)
-
Hypoxia-induced SKA3 promoted cholangiocarcinoma progression and chemoresistance by enhancing fatty acid synthesis via the regulation of PAR-dependent HIF-1a deubiquitylation
Journal of Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research (2023)