Arctic Ocean Mega Project: Paper 3 - Mesozoic to Cenozoic geological evolution
Introduction
Key information on concepts of the geological and tectonic history of the Arctic is presented in many studies (e.g., Grantz et al., 2011b, Grantz et al., 2011a; Piskarev et al., 2019; Stein, 2008). Our objective is to analyze the onshore and offshore records within these time intervals and to develop paleogeographical and paleotectonic maps for different intervals of the geological history of the entire Arctic. Similar efforts have been made by many authors (e.g., Alvey et al., 2008; Hutchinson et al., 2017; Jokat and Ickrath, 2015; Kuzmichev, 2009; Laverov et al., 2013; Lawver et al., 2015, Lawver et al., 2011; Lobkovsky, 2016; Metelkin et al., 2016; Miller et al., 2018b, Miller et al., 2018a; Miller and Verzhbitsky, 2009; Nikishin et al., 2017a, Nikishin et al., 2017b, Nikishin et al., 2015; Petrov et al., 2016; Petrov, 2017; Piskarev et al., 2019; Shephard et al., 2013; Shipilov, 2016; Sømme et al., 2018; Vernikovsky et al., 2013; Weigelt et al., 2014; Ziegler, 1989, Ziegler, 1988). The main challenge to develop these models resides in the lack of understanding of the structure of the Amerasia Basin. Two main groups of models for the tectonic history of the Amerasia Basin exist. The first group of models considers a rotational hypothesis in which the Amerasia Basin opened as an integral structure with a pole of rotation in the south and a transform segment along the Lomonosov Ridge (Evangelatos and Mosher, 2016; Grantz et al., 2011b, Grantz et al., 2011a; Shephard et al., 2013). The South Anyui Ocean closed concurrently with formation of the accretionary-collisional Verkhoyansk-Chukotka orogen (Grantz et al., 2011b, Grantz et al., 2011a; Piepjohn et al., 2018). The second group of models assumes that Canada Basin formed independently, while the region of the Alpha-Mendeleev ridges and the Podvodnikov Basin formed in a separate tectonic environment and at a different time than Canada Basin (Alvey et al., 2008; Doré et al., 2016; Hutchinson et al., 2017; Lobkovsky, 2016; Miller and Verzhbitsky, 2009; Nikishin et al., 2017a, Nikishin et al., 2017b; Nikishin et al., 2015; Shipilov, 2016). The models within each group may also differ significantly.
We refrain here from a discussion of the structure and geological history of Canada Basin. The new data have been well documented (Chian et al., 2016; Chian and Lebedeva-Ivanova, 2015; Coakley et al., 2016; Coakley and Ilhan, 2012; Hutchinson et al., 2017; Mosher et al., 2012). The formation time of Canada Basin is debatable and different models for the formation of this basin from Early Jurassic to Late Cretaceous have been proposed (Coakley et al., 2016; Dixon et al., 2019; Grantz et al., 2011a, Grantz et al., 2011b; Houseknecht, 2019; Hutchinson et al., 2017; Miller et al., 2018b, Miller et al., 2018a; Mosher et al., 2012; Pease et al., 2014; Toro et al., 2016). In accordance with the model of Helwig et al. (2011), the breakup unconformity has an age ca. 133 Ma (the Valanginian/Hauterivian boundary) and oceanic crust was formed prior to mid-Aptian (ca. 117 Ma). This model is based on the notion that the rift/postrift boundary in the Sverdrup Basin has an age of about 135–130 Ma, while this boundary should corresponds to the breakup unconformity in Canada Basin (Hadlari et al., 2016). New data for Canada Basin (Chian et al., 2016; Coakley et al., 2016; Hutchinson et al., 2017; Mosher et al., 2012) show that its opening took place under cool mantle conditions.
A key challenge in the geological history of the Arctic Ocean is the issue of the basement of the Alpha-Mendeleev ridges (see Paper 2). In all models ridges are volcanic edifices, though the type of crust unambiguously identified upon which this volcanism did took place has not yet been identified (Brumley, 2014; Bruvoll et al., 2012, Bruvoll et al., 2010; Kashubin et al., 2018, Kashubin et al., 2013). Our new data are indicative of a continental nature of the Alpha-Mendeleev terrane. Just after the completion of the Verkhoyansk-Chukotka Orogeny at ca. 125 Ma, formation of basaltic igneous provinces started throughout the Arctic. Basaltic provinces are well known on the Ellesmere Island, on Svalbard, on Franz Josef Land, and on the De Long Islands (Corfu et al., 2013; Drachev and Saunders, 2006). We identified a new hypothetical igneous province north of Wrangel Island (see Paper 2). These data show that the Alpha-Mendeleev Igneous Province was surrounded by igneous provinces on all sides (except the area of Canada Basin). The available data show that volcanism in the Alpha-Mendeleev Province also started at ca. 127–110 Ma. This implies that within the framework of the available data, an approximately synchronous onset of volcanism in a large area can be assumed. Our analyses of seismic lines show that the Arlis Gap Buried High is a continuation of the structure of the Mendeleev Ridge (see Paper 2). Our data also show that most part of the Makarov Basin's basement is a continuation of the structure of the Alpha Ridge. A similar conclusion is presented in Evangelatos and Mosher (2016). Summing up these data, it appears that the Alpha-Mendeleev Igneous Province started to form at the eastern margin of the Lomonosov Ridge. That is, the Alpha-Mendeleev Igneous Province started to form at ca. 125 Ma as a volcanic continental margin. This hypothesis is in good agreement with inferences from analysis of gravity and magnetic anomalies (Gaina et al., 2011; Oakey and Saltus, 2016).This hypothesis was mentioned in Dove et al. (2010) as one of the probable concepts. The Alpha-Mendeleev Igneous Province can be compared with the Kerguelen Plateau (Bénard et al., 2010; Borissova et al., 2003) in the Indian Ocean (Nikishin et al., 2015; Oakey and Saltus, 2016) or with the Vøring Plateau on the continental margin of Norway in the North Atlantic (see also Abdelmalak et al. (2016) and Omosanya et al. (2016)).
In 2014 and 2016, rock samples were taken with the use of a specially equipped submarine on three scarps on the Mendeleev Ridge (Skolotnev et al., 2019, Skolotnev et al., 2017). As a result, three sections were studied, which are composed mainly of sedimentary rocks with Paleozoic fauna. These sections are pierced by basalt dykes and sills of Early Cretaceous age (110–115 Ma) (Petrov, 2017; Skolotnev et al., 2019, Skolotnev et al., 2017). These data suggest that the Mendeleev Ridge is a continental terrane that experienced a strong extension and magmatism. Most recent geometrical reconstructions of the Arctic Ocean history with synchronous opening of the Amerasia Basin and closure of the South Anyui Ocean are probably not correct due to existence of a large-size continental Alpha-Mendeleev terrane which does not comply with such a model.
Section snippets
Data and methods
The bulk of our new data is presented in Papers 1 and 2. This applies in particular to the revised seismostratigraphy and tectonostratigraphy of the Arctic Ocean. In this paper, we aim to provide a synthesis of all our and published tectonostratigraphy data of the ocean jointly with the paleogeographic and paleotectonic history of the onshore regions surrounding the ocean with the objective to create a model for the geological history of the area of the Arctic Ocean in the Mesozoic and
Geometrical reconstructions of the Arctic region
Many kinematic reconstructions of the geography of the Arctic Ocean exist. Global reconstructions with a focus on the Arctic region are widely known (e.g., Alvey et al., 2008; Golonka, 2011; Lawver et al., 2015, Lawver et al., 2011; Shephard et al., 2013). We made kinematic reconstructions of the Arctic region taking into consideration that the Alpha-Mendeleev Terrane has a continental crust and was of great importance in the opening of the ocean (Freiman et al., 2018; Nikishin et al., 2015,
Discussion
In this study, we present new data together with a synthesis of published data on the geology of the Arctic. These data allow to resolve the history of the Arctic Ocean. Here we present several new concepts and approaches.
The new models presented in this study show that it is difficult to use the classical “rotational” model to explain the opening of Amerasia Basin with the main transform along the Lomonosov Ridge (e.g., Grantz et al., 2011b, Grantz et al., 2011a). There are two groups of
Conclusions
An atlas of paleogeographic and paleotectonic maps showing main events in the history of the Arctic during the period of 0–157 Ma is presented in this paper. The following main conclusions obtained by us are:
- 1.
There are Timanides, Caledonides, Ellesmerides, and Uralides-Taimyrides terranes within continental basement rocks underlying the greater Arctic Basin.
- 2.
The Mendeleev Ridge has a possible continental pre-Ordovician basement.
- 3.
The classical rotational model for opening of the Amerasia Basin with
Declaration of Competing Interest
Reviewer-3 disagrees with our model of the Arctic history. Reviewer-3 believes to the classical rotation model, it is very difficult to discuss with him any alternative tectonic scenarios.
He sent a political paper to editors with the title: “Worrisome Political Overtones of the Nikishin et al papers”. We do not want political discussions in the scientific journal.
We have no any other conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology of Russia for the possibility to publish this paper. Discussions with C. Gaina, E. Miller, V. Pease, W. Jokat, J.I. Faleide, S. Drachev, R. Stephenson, D. Franke, A. Escalona, I. Norton, N. Lebedeva-Ivanova, E. Lundin, A. Doré, E. Weigelt stimulated our work. We are grateful to many Russian geologists from different scientific organizations with which we conducted numerous discussions: L.I. Lobkobsky, V.A. Vernikovsky, S.D.
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