Size control goes global
Section snippets
Size: a system level attribute
The size of organisms on this planet ranges over an enormous scale, from recently described nano-organisms that have an estimated cell volume of a mere 6 aL [1] to giant Armillaria fungi that can literally span thousands of acres [2]. Even within an organism, the size of cells varies remarkably, for example from metre long motorneurons to mature lymphocytes that are 100 000 times smaller. Despite the importance of size in biology, JBS Haldane penned in his famous essay, On Being the Right Size
The balance between growth and division
Gross changes in body size are wrought through developmental control of tissue and organ size thresholds, as effected by master hormonal regulators [3••]. Intriguingly, some mutations that perturb cell size also alter organ size, whereas others do not, suggesting a fractious relationship between the various size thresholds [4•]. The most conserved and, to this point, most mysterious correlate of cell size is genome ploidy: In any given species, cell size scales with cell ploidy in a remarkably
Yeast rises to the size challenge again
Before the molecular genetic era, the study of cell size homeostasis was at the vanguard of cellular physiology in fission and budding yeast [6, 11], as well as in cultured mammalian cells [7]. The isolation of the small cell size mutant wee1 in fission yeast and its identification as a Cdc2 regulatory kinase proved crucial in establishing the basis of G2/M cell cycle regulation; similarly, isolation of the budding yeast small cell size mutant WHI1-1 and its identification as the first yeast G1
Metazoan cell size control: genome-scale analysis takes flight
Construction of a collection of dsRNA targeting all predicted open reading frames (ORFs) in Drosophila (www.flyrnai.org), and associated methodology to transfect cultured cells in high-throughput fashion has enabled analogous systematic screens for Drosophila genes involved in cell growth and division. The first such screen not only focused on morphological readouts, but also identified cell size regulators [42]. Determination of cell size and cell cycle phenotypes of all predicted protein
The next frontier: organ size control
In contrast to autonomous effects of many genes on the size of single cells, the larger puzzle of how organ size is set has yet to be placed in a systematic framework [50]. Despite the host of genes that affect cell size in S2 cells, very few have a significant influence on organ size. For example, when cell division in a compartment of the developing Drosophila wing is accelerated by overexpression of the G1/S transcription factor E2F, the increase in cell number is precisely compensated by a
The big picture: determinants of organism size
Genome-scale screens for modulators of whole organism size seem set to add a final layer on the underlying labyrinth of cell and organ size control networks. The control of body size in metazoans is under complex hormonal and nutrient control mechanisms that appear to vary widely even between related species [3••]. C. elegans is a particularly interesting model in this regard as each cell in the adult is the product of a fully determined lineage, unlike the more plastic developmental programme
Conclusion: sizing up future prospects
As systems biology approaches mature, previously intractable systems-level problems such as size control will inexorably begin to yield. As size control networks are mapped, further relationships between size, division, survival, tissue structure and myriad signalling pathways will emerge. These linkages will in turn illuminate the central role of growth processes in disease, notably cancer. Given the pleiotropic nature of size control, the elaboration of size control mechanisms in other model
References and recommended reading
Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review, have been highlighted as:
• of special interest
•• of outstanding interest
Acknowledgements
We apologize that many important contributions to the size control field could not be cited because of space constraints. We thank Helen McNeill, Anne-Claude Gingras, Eric Weiss, Laurence Pelletier, Lorrie Boucher, Jeff Sharom, Brandt Schneider, Bruce Futcher and Paul Jorgensen for stimulating discussions on size control and genome-wide screens. Research in the Tyers laboratory is supported by grants from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) and the National Cancer Institute of
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PLAG1 dampens protein synthesis to promote human hematopoietic stem cell self-renewal
2022, BloodCitation Excerpt :This appears selective to primitive hematopoietic cells because comparably handled PLAG1-SOE K562 and Lin−CD34− cells display unchanged and heighted translation levels, respectively (supplemental Figure 5D). Anabolic processes such as protein biosynthesis are generally correlated with cellular enlargement and division,63,64,65,66,67 both of which can predict HSC exhaustion.24,68 To this point, the diameter of untransduced cultured HSPCs is significantly enlarged coincident with the peak in translation rates, which notably precedes when the first cellular division is expected28 (supplemental Figure 5A).
Ribosomal biogenesis in eukaryotes
2021, Emerging Concepts in Ribosome Structure, Biogenesis, and FunctionElastic hydrogel as a sensor for detection of mechanical stress generated by single cells grown in three-dimensional environment
2016, BiomaterialsCitation Excerpt :From the beginning of cell cycle to the end of cytokinesis, the volume of mammalian cells increases with time [1–5]. The increase is driven by intracellular pressure and molecular forces from cytoskeleton and motor proteins [2,4,6–13]. The volume increase exerts mechanical forces on surrounding tissues, which are sources of the growth stress observed during embryonic development, aging, and disease progressions [10,14–21].
Runx1 Deficiency Decreases Ribosome Biogenesis and Confers Stress Resistance to Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells
2015, Cell Stem CellCitation Excerpt :Cell size is thus one of several aspects of Runx1 haploinsufficiency in mice that differs from the human FPD/AML phenotype (Sun and Downing, 2004), because mouse and humans appear to have different sensitivities to moderately reduced Runx1 dosage. Cell size generally correlates with ribosome biogenesis (Ribi) (Cook and Tyers, 2007); therefore, we measured the amount of total RNA in Runx1-deficient cells, as the vast majority (>85%) of cellular RNA comprises or encodes components of the ribosome. Indeed, Runx1-deficient HSPCs (LKS+/−, heretofore designated LK) contained 50% less total RNA than f/f cells on a per-cell basis (Figure 2E).